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24TH/ AUGUST
(FOR
AFRICAN ADVENTURES AND VACATIONS (KAZUNGU)
DEFINITION OF TERMS
In
this report, unless the context otherwise requires:
“Decent
Work” means
the productive work for women and men in conditions of freedom, security, equity,
and human dignity;
“Employed” refers
to persons of
working age (15 or over) engaged in work for remuneration and it excludes work for own-use consumption, voluntary work and unpaid trainee work;
“Empowerment” refers
to the process of creating enabling conditions for the youth to make effective
choices, and bringing the best of
their capabilities to generate solutions to
their employment challenges;
“Informal
economy” refers
to all economic activities by workers and economic units that are – in law or
in practice – not sufficiently covered (or not covered at all) by formal
arrangements;
“Unemployed” refers
to persons of working age (15 or over) who are not in employment, are actively searching for work for pay or profit and are available
to work for remuneration;
“Youth” This report adopts the
African Union classification of the youth as persons between the ages of 15 and
35 years.
“Young people leaving care”
Refers to young people who leave care because they have
reached the age when they are no longer entitled to special protection and
assistance from the care system. The typical age of a young person leaving care
is 18, however in some countries this can be up to 24 years, or later,
depending on various circumstances.
INTRODUCTION
This
report interrogates the state of employability into decent work for care
leavers. The purpose of the report is first to appreciate the status quo, gaps
that exist and provide a prognosis in addressing the identified challenges. The
study comes in the wake of several researches having been conducted on the
state of children’s rights in residential childcare facilities. There has not
been a study with a raison detre of
looking at the state of affairs of care leavers. Therefore as a debut study on
this pertinent subject, the study identifies the strategic issues that need
attention premised on the human rights principles where the state is the
primary duty bearer. This means that the state has an obligation to provide
public goods such as education, health care and social protection.
The
report used a qualitative methodology whilst employing methods such as key
informant interviews, participatory observation, and secondary data through desk
review. The research used care leavers as data collectors. This enriched the
process in that they had insights on the quality of life those children in care
facilities experience, using their own encounters. These encounters enriched
this report significantly. The report is structured into three sections. The
first section sets the context of Zimbabwe’s socio political economy in the
framework of employability of care leavers. The second section outlines the
challenges that militate against the care leavers in their quest for decent
work. The last section then provides recommendations of how the identified
challenges can be ameliorated.
Overall
Objective
The
primary goal of the study is to provide SOS Children’s Villages Zimbabwe with
knowledge and understanding of the situation of young people leaving
alternative care regarding employability and Decent Work. The mapping study
gathered information on this topic and provided evidence “to make the case” and
find potential partners to promote the issues of youth employability among
young people leaving care in Zimbabwe.The overall objective of the study is to
collect and organize evidence, practices, and actors involved in the value
chain of access to decent employment for care leavers.
Specific
objectives of the study
1.
Provide an overview of the current national
policies on the subject of youth employment of care leavers
2. Analyse
current situation in regards to employment of young people leaving alternative
care, including existing practices, activities of state bodies, institutions
and organizations, non-governmental organizations working in the field of
employment, the problems of their employability, the existing support and the
problem of access to decent work
3. Provide
recommendations for improving the situation with employment of young people
leaving alternative care across various sectors such as education, social protection,
child protection etc.
4. The mapping
study will provide more detailed information on the situation of young people
leaving care in regard to employability and employment outcomes in Harare,
Bindura and Bulawayo
BACKGROUND
Youth
unemployment restrains the contribution of this demographic dividend to the
economy, which in resultantly has social and economic ramifications for the
country. Zimbabwe has low levels of decent employment for youth, and high
levels of youth unemployment. Youth as a demographic group continue to face
challenges of poverty and inequality, stemming among others, from unemployment,
lack of formal employment, irregularity of work and social protection. The
large youth population in the country creates colossal opportunity, which if
properly harnessed, can translate into better economic growth and development,
and produce a demographic dividend. Since the is not a monolithic group, there
is a category of the youth that bears the brunt of the challenges of the youth-
it is those leaving care, where all cushion and safety nets are removed as a
result of government policy on leaving care.
Translating the youth
demographic opportunity into a dividend has been compounded by many challenges
in the country. One of these is the dearth of quality information and data on
the situation of youth employment. In addition, the information is not
comprehensive to include the plight of various marginalised youth groups such
as care leavers. To get insights on this particular group of the youth, below
is an elucidation of the integrated,
three-dimensional approach conceptual framework that this research used.
Conceptual
Framework
The Integrated, Three-Dimensional Approach of Youth
Employment Promotion
The integrated three-dimensional approach
to youth employment addresses three important variables necessary to
interrogate how young people can get involved in the labour market. What is
most important is the labour supply side, which looks at the calibre of the
young people that are churned out of alternative care facilities. This aspect
looks at their preparedness, balance, worldview, agency, and issues of esteem.
The other side looks at the labour demand, the skills needed, support
available, and employers’ interests in hiring youth. The matching aspect covers
legislative and policy regimes in place that enable youth to participate.
Figure
1: The Integrated, three-dimensional approach to youth employment promotion
|
LABOUR SUPPLY:Promotion of Youth Leaving Alternative Care Employability
Basic education
Concept of self
Technical and vocational education
Psychosocial counselling for the youth
Youth agency
Youth worldview
|
|
MATCHING
Promotion of youth employment policy and institutions
e.g.
SADC Youth Employment Promotion Policy
Framework of 2016
Linking young people to jobs
Career guidance
Market information
|
|
LABOUR DEMAND: Employment Creation
Promotion of young entrepreneurs
Youth affirmative action and commitment
Incentives for employers
|
Source: Adopted from German Federal
Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (2006)
It is worth noting that young people
from alternative care facilities have agency, aspirations, and drive, which
should be recognised and channelled appropriately. Further, they need to have
their world view expanded in view of the fact that we now live in a global
village with opportunities all over the world, not necessarily one’s country of
residence-let alone town. The study used this global worldview in exploring
available opportunities.
THE SOCIO POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF ZIMBABWE
The
prevailing state of Zimbabwe’s employment challenges areentrenched in the
economic withering that occurred during the “Lost Decade” (1998-2008). The
legacy of the lost decade will be felt by future generations. One inevitable
outcome of the economic downturn was the shrinking of capacity utilisation of
the industry. From 2000 to 2007, the economy shrunk by 40 percent. Foreign
direct investment plummeted from USD444 million in 1998 to USD3.8 million in
2003.[1]
Between 2008 and 2009, hyperinflationroseexponentially to over 231,000,000
percent. To abate the situation Zimbabwe introduced a multi-currency system in
2009. This policy at least managed to salvage the situation of inflation.
Figure 2 below shows the Zimbabwe GDP trajectory during the embattled period.
Figure 2: Zimbabwe GDP trends, 2006-2016
Source:
World Bank, 2016
The Graph confirms an
earlier assertion that the year 2008 witnessed the lowest levels of the sinking
Zimbabwean economy into abyss. The introduction of the multi-currency system
saw the economy recover temporarily. From 2012, the economy started falling
again primarily due to little to non-existent production capacity in the
country. The downward trend is still ongoing even in 2016. According to data from the
National Social Security Authority (NSSA), 55 414 employees lost their jobs because
of 4 610 company closures between 2010 and 2014. 83% of the youth who are aged
between 15 and 35 are unemployed and this age category constitutes 67% of the
country’s population.[2] This means
that the country loses potential productivity that could be brought by this
active group if it were harnessed well.
The
business environment of the country further compounds the situation. In recent
assessments of ease of doing business in the country, Zimbabwe ranked as one of
the least favourite destinations for investment globally. Figure 3 below shows
the rankings that Zimbabwe has been receiving in comparison to the other
countries of the world.
Figure 3: Ease of doing business ranking for Zimbabwe
Source:
World Bank, 2016
The
graph shows that out of 194 countries in the world, the country’s best ranking
was in 2014 where it was 153. One of the reasons why Zimbabwe ranks low on ease
of doing business is the issue of corruption. This cancer has become more like
the modus operandi in the various levels of government. This notion can be
epitomised by the ‘disappearance’ of USD15 billion dollars from diamonds within
the government system.[3]
The revelations of the missing money came from the president of the country in
February 2016 when he noted that:
We
have not received much from the diamond industry at all. I do not think we have
exceeded $2 billion, yet we think more than $15 billion has been
earned … Lots of smuggling and swindling has taken place and the companies that
have been mining, I want to say, robbed us of our wealth.[4]
The president alluded to the leakages that are in the
system resulting in such a humongous loss in revenue. The reason for this, as
was observed by a political commentator, Alex Magaisa, is that the diamond
industry benefited political elites, mostly from ZANU PF since the diamond
industry has been shrouded in secrecy.[5]
As a result, there is a conflation of the politics of the day and running of
the economy. This has created cronyism, clientilism and patronage politics in
the running of the country. The inevitable result of this is hemorrhage of the
country’s resources with little to no accountability at all. In 2012, the
IMF reported that USD600 million of diamond dividends was expected to the
state, but only USD45 million was actually received in the treasury.[6]Such an environment generally scares away investors
who want to conduct business in a clean way and create employment. With
investment flight caused by the aforementioned circumstances, the unemployment
situation remains deplorable.
In 2008, the
government of Zimbabwe promulgated the Indigenisation and Economic Empowerment Act. The Act
forces foreign owned companies to transfer at least 51 percent of the business’
shares to black Zimbabweans. After the introduction of this policy, several
scholars and economists noted that the policy would scare away investors.[7]In a Parliamentary debate, the vice
president of the opposition political party, Movement for Democratic Change,
Thokozani Khupe lambasted the indigenisation policy when she said that:
When talking about FDI, we are talking billions. I do
not think we would have any sane person coming here with his billions and then
the next day, somebody comes in and say they want 51% of the billions. No one
will come and invest because people want to invest where they know their
investment is safe. Investors want to see a policy such that when they read it
they feel like wanting to come and invest in Zimbabwe.[8]
The government has since tried to review
the policy having realised that it has not been helping in luring investors. As
a result, the opportunity of ameliorating unemployment through foreign direct
investment was lost. The current efforts to review the policy have not yielded
much from serious investors.
Another
factor militating against the revival of the Zimbabwean economy is
international debt. The country is considered as one of the Highly Indebted
Poor Countries in the world. Debt impedes the country’s ability to leverage new
investments and capital. As of 2012, Zimbabwe’s debt stood at USD 6.1 billion
(49 percent of GDP) and the stock of accumulated arrears accounted for USD 4.7
billion, 78 percent of total debt stock.[9]
Debt means that there is little fiscal space for the state to invest in
reviving the productive sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, and mining.
Productivity plays a major role in economic and social development and is
essential in attaining the social and economic objectives of creating
employment, opportunities poverty reduction, improving organizational efficiency,
and competitiveness. Moreover, productivity opens up avenues to participation
in international economic activities. Subsequently the number of opportunities
for decent employment are then limited.
YOUTH EMPLOYMENT IN ZIMBABWE
In
2013, the government came up with the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable
Socio-Economic Transformation (ZimASSET, 2013-18). The policy document
identified four pillars for the revival of the Zimbabwean economy namely: food
security and nutrition; social services and poverty eradication; infrastructure
and utilities; and value addition and beneficiation. One of the deliverables of
the policy within the set timeframe is creation of 2.2 million jobs for the
youth of the country.[10]
One of the major shortcomings of the document however is that it does not
layout a concrete plan of how the set targets and objectives would be actualised.[11]
As a result, the unemployment situation of the country remains dire, as was the
case prior to the introduction of the policy.
There have been debates
though about the exact unemployment figures in the country. On the one hand,
the government suggests that unemployment is only in the range of 12 percent.
The rationale that is used in this argument is that most employment is in the
informal sector therefore employment statistics usually neglect this aspect. On
the other hand, the unemployment figure has been put at 83%.[12] This
school of thought does not recognize informal sector as decent employment for
the youth. Currently in Zimbabwe, there are an estimated
40 000 graduates of universities and other tertiary institutions who have
resorted to vending after the failure to find decent employment.[13]
The first school of thought used by the government considers vending as
employment. The major difference between these two schools of thinking is on
the definition of decent employment. For the purposes of this report, we will
consider decent employment as productive work for women and men that is done in
conditions of freedom, security, equity, and human dignity. Of course, there is
employment in the informal sector, which provides conditions for decent
employment but that has to be interrogated.
Figure
4: Zimbabwe employment trends by Type
Source: ZimStat Labour force Surveys (2004 and 2011)
Figure
4 above shows the trajectory of employment trends in Zimbabwe since 1993. As
can be deciphered from the graph, when capacity utilisation of industry was at
its highest, informal employment was at its lowest. As the trajectories started
changing, there was a gradual shift from formal employment to informal. This
dramatic shift is linked to the issues discussed earlier of closing of
industries and loss of investor confidence in the operational environment of
Zimbabwe. It can be said that industries provided decent employment and
regulated working conditions that ensured the dignity of the workforce. As the
industries closed, the labour force got into the informal sector where working
conditions and remuneration was not regulated. Due to this status quo, the
young people who are leaving school have no choice but to look for opportunities
in the informal sector and the chances of getting decent employment there are
limited.There has been an increase in informal entrepreneurial activities by
approximately 8 times more than the post-independence period of 1980-1998.[14]The
rise of entrepreneurial activity has been largely driven by need rather than a
burgeoning entrepreneurial spirit, with the absence of liquidity as well as the
absence of formal employment opportunities having the greatest impact on the
increase in informal economic activities.
EMPLOYABILITY OF CARE LEAVERS
Zimbabwean education
and skills obsolescence for decent employment
The
Nziramasanga Presidential Commission on Education observed that Zimbabwean
education system was not relevant largely, to the needs of the 21st
century needs. In the report, recommendations were made for the review of the
curriculum so that it could encapsulate the diverse demands of the pupils. The
report further noted that the education system was predominantly academic hence;
it did not have mechanisms to harness the talents of other children who are not
academically gifted. This could explain the dismal pass rates at Ordinary Level
across the country. The Education for All
National Review Report for 2015 provides more details on this challenge and
mechanisms that have been put in place by the government to make the curriculum
relevant. Figure 5 below shows that the average pass rate of the country
between 2010 and 2015 is 20.7 percent. The question that should arise is about
what happens to the 79.3 who fail to get the required five ordinary level
subjects, including English and mathematics.
Figure 5: Ordinary Level Pass Rate from 2010 to 2015
Source:
Ministry of Primary and Secondary data
The
graph however shows a gradual improvement in the pass rate. This trend however
is not consoling since the numbers of the children who are left by the system
as unemployable especially in decent employment are still high.
Children
from residential childcare facilities are not spared from the dismal pass rate.
A caregiver raised this in a residential childcare facility when she noted
that:
…these young people from institutions do not do well
academically and we need to understand why this is so because in terms of
resources they are usually better off in some instances. I do not have answers
why children in the village do not do well in school myself and it seems other
institutions are faced with the same challenge…
As
such, the issue of poor academic performance can be said to be one of the key
reasons why care leavers are not able to secure decent employment.
Talking
to potential employers, it came out that completion of Form 4 provided a
guarantee of basic literacy and numeracy skills that dropouts from primary
school would not ordinarily possess. Despite completion of Form 4 by the youth
however, the same were not qualified for most tertiary and vocational training
opportunities since the entry requirements at these colleges is usually five
‘O’ Levels as the minimum proviso for entry level positions. Secondary educated
youth make up the largest proportion of the youth workforce at 50 percent and
this stock is growing by an estimated 7 percent per annum.[15]
Inability
of care leavers to progress with their education to tertiary level having
failed to come up with the required five O level subjects affects them in the end
in obtaining decent employment. A research that was conducted by
Pscacharoploulos and Patrinos (2002) observed that an additional year of
schooling increases the quality of individual’s income by, on average, 11.7 per
cent.[16]
In view of this, it can be observed that the girl child is disadvantaged as she
is the first casualty to drop out of school when life is in a crisis. Figure 6
below indicates that generally in primary school, there are equal numbers of
boys and girls attending school. The disparity begins to show in secondary
education and the gap keeps widening in higher levels of education.
Figure
6: Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) gender ratios
Source:
Ministry of Science and Technology Development, 2012
This
graph is also a reflection of the employability of the care leavers by gender.
The graph shows that employability of the girl child in decent employment is
compromised by early exit from the formal education system. In view of
Pscacharoploulos and Patrinos’ findings, it also means that the girl care
leaver has less chances of getting decent employment, which would pay incomes
that can help them to live modest lives.
Education relevance
Several
researches have been done on the extent to which Zimbabwean education is
relevant to the demands of the market.[17]
A research by Kanyenze (1997) established that the country’s education and
training systems are ill designed to satisfy the human resources requirements
of the economy (both formal and non-formal).[18]Bennell
and Nyakonda (1992) who argued that the primary cause for youth unemployment
was a result of the mismatch of skills offered versus skills demanded by the
market, poor coordination among government departments and under-utilized
industrial capacity, corroborate Kanyenze’s study.[19]Officials
at UNECA echoed the foregoing observations when they reported that in
sub-Saharan Africa, unskilled youth, including socially excluded young people,
such as the disabled young, and young people in conflict and post-conflict
areas, are more vulnerable to economic shocks. They are less likely to find
work and more likely to be stuck with underemployment with few opportunities to
develop their potential, and are more vulnerable to demographic changes.[20]
One youth worker was in consonance to the foregoing observations when he noted
that:
We are in an underperforming economy, there are limitations
in terms of accessing employment, and entrepreneurial opportunities are very
tight. There is also the issue of relevance of courses/qualifications, they do
not suit current trades such as fitting and turning course, where do you use it
and yet in the last year alone over 200 companies closed, where then do these
graduates use their skills.
There
is a mismatch between curriculum and current trends and those who are teaching
have no practical experience to impart the needed knowledge to future
employees. The SOS CVZ youth officer elucidated this argument further when he
noted that:
…there are no opportunities for entry
level jobs so that we gain the needed work experience." In most cases,
jobs are asking for people with minimum 5years experience but we have not
worked at all to be able to apply. In government, people have passed retirement
age but are still employed. In terms of training there are many colleges,
universities but not enough resources to learn the modern techniques of doing
things e.g. limited internet access, limited equipment, not everyone has a
computer.
The
citation above shows that there is a mismatch between what is taught in schools
and what the market demands. There is need for a seamless education system that
feeds into the labour market needs. The irrelevance of the education curriculum
makes it difficult for all young people to have a decent debut in employment,
let alone the care leavers, with many other factors militating against them.
Quality of care in
preparation for discharge
|
A Discharge Plan shall be
prepared for each child ready to leave care and is to be based on the
individual care plan of the particular child. It will detail the process
through which a child will become independent, returns to his/her family of
origin or moves into another placement (Section 37 of the Children’s Act;
Chapter 5:06).
Criteria
6.1 The
institution, in consultation with the child and the Department of Social
Services, shall plan and implement the Discharge Plan, which shall outline
the following arrangements:
6.2 Particular attention shall be paid to ensure that children
are prepared to:
6.3 Follow-ups,
continuous support and opportunity for contact are ensured so as to make
the child’s adjustment to the new situation smooth.
|
The
quality of preparation to leave care, which young people receive in the
residential childcare facilities, determine their preparedness for the world of
work. In a group discussion with young people who had left care, it became
known that the caregivers did not have the capacity to prepare the young people
for the world of work. The group discussion noted that naturally, caregivers
could only influence the young people to consider professions, which caregivers
understood. As a result, in one residential institution, the caregivers
encouraged young people to take up sewing, carpentry and farming only. For
those children who did not have an interest in these subjects, they did not get
any support.
The
research interrogated the caliber of caregivers who are expected to prepare
children for the world of work. The National Residential Child Care Standards
dedicated to standards to the issue of employment of caregivers. Standard 13
covers the issues of recruitment of caregivers whilst Standard 15 addresses
issues of staffing support. Both standards do not have a minimum qualification
required for one to be considered for the job. Instead, Standard 13.7 notes
that ‘Child care workers will have undergone basic
training and have experience in child care and first aid from a recognized
institution…’
We
are limited in how we bring up these children, if you have entrusted me with a
child as a mother, why then do not you trust me to discipline that child as my
own. When they leave care these children go out there and mingle with children
who grew up in normal homes, they are not able to manage these relationships
because they are used to having a cushion of the system shielding them from the
realities of life.
The reduced authority of the caregivers in
administration of discipline compromises the loco parentis principle. With such limited authority, the
caregivers are therefore not able to prepare the young people adequately to
leave care and be able to compete at a global market.
Further, they could not equip the care
leavers with basic skills needed in looking for employment such as developing curriculum
vitae, preparation for an interview and so forth. As a result, the kind of
young person coming from the residential care facilities is usually ill
equipped for the ‘obvious’ knowledge and skills pertaining to employment. This
scenario puts the care leaver at a disadvantage subsequently affecting their
esteem.
Labour Market
Information Systems
Access
to information is one fundamental right, which can facilitate access to decent
employment in the country. The African Youth Charter observed this aspect
especially as it relates to issues of employment hence they came up with
Article 15.3, which seeks to address this issue. The SADC Youth Employment
Policy Framework also encapsulated this aspect. The significance of labour
market information systems is enshrined in the ILO Convention concerning labour
statistics, 1985 (No.160) and Recommendation concerning labour statistics, 1985
(No.170).Labour market information systems cover a range of information such as
inter alia labour market policies
regarding national education and training needs, issues of labour migration;
minimum wages legislative and regulatory reforms and available employment
opportunities. In the context of Zimbabwe, there is no labour market
information system that care leavers can rely on. As a result, young people
have taken initiative to come up with social media platforms where they share
employment opportunities that will be available. There are Facebook platforms
such as:
·
The Zim Youth Village
·
Zimbabwe Youth Employment
Network
·
Youth jobs Zimbabwe
On
these platforms, youth from all lifestyles post any opportunities that they
would have come across. For care leavers, we observed that most of them were
not privy of such platforms. One of the reasons was that they struggle to get
data to access internet, if they have the phone at all. As a result, the care
leavers’ access to information is compromised since they will not be having
support structure to provide them with be it transport money or data bundles to
look for opportunities for decent employment. Kain (1968) and Wilson (1997) who
argued that a lack of geographic access to jobs contributes to adverse labour
market outcomes for job seekers noted this observation.[21]They
cite the standard job search theory, which posits that any decrease in the cost
of searching, including subsidizing public transit, causes job seekers to
search more intensively.[22]
Search costs dampen search intensity most for individuals living in distant, spatially
mismatched neighbourhoods, and this leads to poor labour market outcomes. In
the case of care leavers, not having money for transport and data for internet
dampen the intensity of their search for decent employment.
The other side to this issue the research
observed that there is hardly any financed and tailor-made system in place to
follow up on care leavers so that programs can be designed around them. The
research noted that this group does not feature amongst the categories of the
young people who are targeted by the youth programs initiated by the
government. To affirm this assertion, the SOS Villages Youth officer posited
that:
We
do not know where they are, where they are employed and if they feel they are
at decent jobsfor those who are at SOS,no, they are not getting the right remuneration,
they are barely surviving, and it is not decent work. There is a gap in after
care support and monitoring. The care planning process and exit plans should be
done to prepare for exit and access to decent work, life skills needed and
information that is current and relevant to the job market. We need to build
negotiating skills of young people, ensure they are able to have confidence and
challenge stereotypes and build relations in the work place.
The
foregoing citation shows that beyond national labour market information
systems, at a lower level, child and youth organisations need to come up with
their own knowledge management systems to help monitor the care leavers. This
comes as no surprise that there is no database at national level of care
leavers, where they are and what they are doing with their lives. Having such a
database is important in monitoring, lesson learning over time about the impact
of interventions, which would have been done when one was still in a
residential care facility.
Role of social capital
in accessing decent employment
Social
capital can be defined asan
informal norm that promotes cooperation between two or more individuals within
a given society. It is also the ability of individuals to work together for mutual
purposes in groups and organizations.[23]
Another scholar has defined social capital as features of social life-networks,
norms, andtrust that enable participants to act together more effectively to
pursue shared objectives.[24]
Socialcapital can be unpacked to mean social leverage and also social support.[25]Social
leveraging is about using the existing networks in actualising one’s goals.Socialsupport
is a result of symbiotic relations with family members, acquaintances and
members of specific social groups.
These networks can be a resource that could
be tapped into for any kind of support one may need. For young people, their
social capital builds on the connections, which they have through their parents
or guardians.[26] In the case of children in residential childcare
facilities however, most of them are orphaned therefore do not have the
networks that link them to the society in general which normally is brought by
parents. The networks that the children in residential childcare facilities
haveare the caregivers as well as other children who grew up at the same time
in the care institutions. The limitation with most caregivers in residential childcare
facilities in Zimbabwe is that their calibre would not be able to provide the
necessary support to care leavers in looking for decent employment. Most of
these caregivers are women who may not have networks that could help the
children to get decent employment upon leaving care. One care leaver lucidly
noted that:
At least if the employees who know people who could assist the
care leavers in gaining employment should introduce the care leavers to those
people and become that bridge that care leavers do not have. Care leavers grew
up in a cocoon in which everything seemed to be protection yet it is not. They
leave care and have to face the race of job-hunting, social introductions,
learning to be family on their own among other things when the door to the
cocoon has been shut.
In most cases therefore, children will have
to start establishing networks for themselves. A youth worker from SOS
supported this notion when he noted that:
Youths who leave care are not connected, they are on their own,
nobody outside the institution knows them, and they do not know anyone too.
Getting entry-level jobs is hard too because no one can speak for them in
places of employment compared to those living with their families. Even those
who are older and have left SOS or other institutions, they are not able to
help their younger brothers and sisters because they too are struggling.
Another caregiver from Ponesai Vanhu Village corroborated the foregoing
notion when she posited that:
Those who leave care have nothing to inherit from the organisations,
whereas those who grew up with their biological families have a large network
of people who assist them in life especially in terms of getting decent work.
You find that children who grew up in care end up doing measly jobs such as
selling fruits in the streets, even those who are qualified; they have no one
to connect them to jobs. In Zimbabwe your qualifications don’t matter anymore
when it comes to getting work, what matters is who do you know that’s in a
powerful position to give you a good job.
Further, children in residential childcarefacilities
have limited opportunities to interact with the social networks that are
outside their sphere. Their major opportunities for interaction are through
schools and churches. In these spheres however, there are stigma innuendos,
which the rest of the society uses in interacting with the children. As a
result, the children from residential care facilities end up being reserved and
preferring to interact with fellow children from the care institutions. As they
grow up therefore, these children’s social skills are not horned so that they
can manoeuvre their way in life.
To affirm the foregoing, one care leaver
lamented that:
I
admit that I was helped so much in getting very good education but the moment I
left care I felt like nobody cared about what I am doing or where i am. Other
people who made the same mistakes we did in life are being assisted; I now know
that Ido not have a place I belong to.
This means that care leavers’ social
capital is mostly limited to the networks they made as they grew up, as well as
those that they would have made out of their own initiative. To avert this
challenge, some of the residential childcare facilities such as SOS Children’s
Villages have come up with mentorship programs where children in care
institutions are placed in families within the broader communities. In a focus
group discussion with some young people in this arrangement, they noted that it
is a novel initiative, which comes with its own challenges such as inter alia,
neglect of the children, culture shocks and in some instances, abuse of the
children. The foregoing argument is corroborated by researches that have been
done in some westerns contexts that showed that young people who grew up
without both parents were disadvantaged compared to their peers who had their
parents. The researchers showed that having parents reduced economic burden on
children.[27]The
limited social capital of care leavers is one reason why the latter are not
able to secure decent employment since employment securing is a function of
access to information, which usually happens through social networks which one
will be part of.
Theagency of care
leavers in accessing decent employment
Human agency can be defined as a temporally
embedded process of social engagement,informed by the past (in its habitual
aspect), but also oriented toward thefuture (as a capacity to imagine
alternative possibilities) and toward thepresent (as a capacity to
contextualize past habits and future projectswithin the contingencies of the
moment).[28]Some of the characteristics
associated with agency include selfhood, determinism, motivation,will,
purposiveness, intentionality, choice, initiative, freedom, and creativity.These traits are crucial in the process of
securing decent employment for an individual. Building on this, Oyserman et al., Schneider and Stevenson underscored the
role of parental support and guidance in building the agency of their children
through, for example, helping them develop concrete ‘life plans’ that could
help reach one’s goals.[29] For young people leaving care however, they
do not have adequate support that nurtures their agency. Standard 14.2 of the
National Residential Child Care Standards provides for the caregiver to children ratio to be at 1:10 at
all times. One caregiver was cited saying:
There are so many of you, it’s difficult to focus on one individual if
you don’t stand out, sometimes the system just passes over you, yet you have
potential to be so much better than what you’re told by others. Do not allow
stigmatisation to determine the kind of person you will become.
The sentiments of a caregiver are understandable
considering the 1:10 ratio prescribed. In some instances, we observed that
residential childcare facilities did not religiously adhere to the prescribed
ratio. There were instances where the ratio was 1caregiver to 15 children. Such
a ratio would not ordinarily allow the caregiver to provide adequate support to
each child so that their agency is nurtured to achieve the child’s goals in
life. One respondent affirmed this point when he noted that:
Youths from institutions have confidence issues, which makes it
harder for them to be go-getters. The fact that we do not have a structured
family means there is no one to lean on.
In consonance to the preceding, another caregiver
noted that:
Our children are being stigmatised at school by fellow children and schoolteachers,
they have low self-esteem because they do not have basic papers like a birth
certificate, how then do we expect them to do well at school, or to get good
jobs when they are being downgraded from a very young age. It is like trying to
straighten an old and bent baobab trunk after 50 years.
To
affirm the assertion above, one Ministry of Youth Empowerment official conceded
that:
I would lie but we have never
helped any youth from SOS or DAPP, this has given us something to look into in
our line of work. This interview has made us realise that there is a gap that
needs to be filled in the way we can assist youths who have left care.
In
a focus group discussion, one youth vividly captured this point when he said:
…getting out of the home is
always a scary moment in our lives. We worry about life outside, when we get
out from the home; it is like starting all over again. We are babies in the
outside world; we are now coming up with a network of young people, which will
offer various services including help with job search…
As was observed by one of the respondent
cited above, children from residential childcare institutions suffer from low
self-esteem. Such ajeopardy in personal efficacy affects directly the
assertiveness of the young person to jump into youth opportunities that may be
available such as through the Zimbabwe Youth Council. Care leavers could have
gotten involved in the youth empowerment fund where youth were getting loans to
start businesses. Care leavers did not however seize the opportunity so they
did not benefit from the loan facility. Indeed the allocation of the loans was
criticised by some media quarters for being done on a partisan basis. Be though
as it may have been, care leavers could have as well joined the political
establishment to participate in the youth empowerment initiatives.
LABOUR DEMAND
Zimbabwe’s
‘education inflation’
|
This desire not to be a ‘charity case’
makes care leavers to do trade-offs between going to school and getting
menial jobs
|
Global mind-set
in addressing unemployment
Be
though as it may, it should be considered that the youth are now living in a
global village. The fact that there are no companies that can offer decent
employment to the youth does not mean that there is no employment elsewhere in
the world. Whilst a certain skill may be inundating the market in Zimbabwe,
there may be other countries where the same skill may be on demand. This
explains the brain drain which Zimbabwe witnessed from around 2000. The United
Kingdom had a shortage of health professionals and social workers from around
2000. Zimbabwean professional with a global mind-set looked for job opportunities
there and there was a massive exodus of health professionals and social workers
to the UK. In the meantime, the Zimbabwean labour market was inundated with the
same professionals who were on demand elsewhere. Many engineers have migrated
from Zimbabwe to South Africa because there is a need there, but Zimbabwe does
not have the need since not much productivity is going on. Having a global mind-set
for the care leavers is one challenge, which the research observed as missing.
As has been noted earlier, this can be traced back to the quality of mentorship
that the care leavers would have obtained during the process of care and when
they are being prepared to leave care.
GOVERNMENT POLICY DIMENSION
Within the human rights discourse, the
state is supposed to be the primary duty bearer with a responsibility of coming
up with social policies that ensure that every citizen lives a life of dignity
and wellbeing. As such, one of the fundamental roles for the government is
coming up with comprehensive laws, which inter
alia cushion the vulnerable in society from exogenous factors, and market
vagaries that threaten the dignity of the people. Government
has put a number of policies and programmes in place inaddressing the economic
empowerment requirements of Zimbabwean youth. These policies include:
·
National Skills Development
Policy
·
NationalYouth Policy
·
Vocational
Training programme focusing on Training for Enterprise
·
Indigenisation
and Economic Empowerment programme.
There
are other several other policy measures and programmes that the Government
developed. These include:
1.
Zimbabwe Youth Employment Network (ZIYEN),
2.
National Employment Policy Framework (ZNEPF),
3.
Establishment of the Youth Development Fund,
4.
Establishment of Youth Economic Zones,
5.
The Indigenisation and Economic Empowerment programme and
6.
The formulation of the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable
Socio-Economic Transformation (ZIM-ASSET).
The Zimbabwe National Youth Policy
Framework
The development of the policy has also
received contributions from such frameworks as the African Youth Charter (AYC),
the United Nations World Programme of Action for Youth (WPAY) and the Global
Political Agreement (GPA). The policy also incorporates aspects from the
Nziramasanga Education and Training Commission Report.The policy seeks to ‘empower
the youth by creating an enabling environment and marshalling the resources
necessary for undertaking programmes and projects to fully develop the youths’
mental, moral, social, economic, political, cultural, spiritual and physical
potential in order to improve their quality of life’.
The National Youth Policy is supposed to provide
common aspirations and priorities for youth development across Zimbabwe.
Through the National Youth Policy, the Government declares the importance of
the active involvement of young people in national development, demonstrating
the distinctive and complementary roles of all Government Ministries, the Non-Government
Sector and Youth Groups in youth development by providing a framework with
common goals for development and promoting a spirit of co-operation and
co-ordination. The priority groups of the policy are the following:
1. Young women
2. Youth with disabilities
3. Pupils and students
4. Unemployed Youth
5. Out-of-school youths
6. Youth living with HIV
7. Youth in the Diaspora
It is worth noting that the priority
groups of the National Youth Policy do not include care leavers as a category
of the youth needing special attention. As a result, there has not been any
intervention targeting care leavers. One care leaver despondently asserted that
‘…I have never seen government coming in to support youths leaving care. I
would have run there myself…’ this shows that there has not been a deliberate
effort by the government to target care leavers in the former’s interventions. Another
respondent noted that:
Government
policies are silent on issues of young people leaving care. Those with
disabilities are mentioned in policies but not children and youths in care
systems. When they are in care, they belong to the state and therefore when
they need employment, government must provide jobs through the Public Service Commission.
We need to establish if the government is aware of these children at the aftercare
stage.
One
Ministry of Youth official admitted to this anomaly when he said that:
If we
want to speak of policies that the government has to promote decent work or
youth employment there are many and have been many in the past, the only
problem is that none of these problems are sustainable. Now this gives us
something to work on as the ministry, we need to come up with sustainable
programmes that will benefit all the youths not just a few.
Another
government official sought to justify the status quo by noting that:
We do
not single out groups of people, as a ministry we are the sole custodians of
the youths but we treat all the youths as the same. We try not to promote
nepotism and we cannot segregate other youths, they should all benefit the same
way.
One
of the major reasons for this could as well arise from the earlier noted point
that children from residential childcare facilities relatively lack agency in
claiming spaces and opportunities.
National budget allocations
Joseph
Schumpeter (1934) argued that ‘the budget is the skeleton of the state,
stripped of all misleading ideologies…’[30]In
consonance to him, it is imperative that any review of the government’s
commitment to a cause explores the level of investment by the state through
national and local authorities’ budgets. In view of this, the research
interrogated the 2016 national budget as a litmus test to the government’s
commitment to addressing youth unemployment as well as providing opportunities
for the youth to be productive. Figure 7 below is an extraction of budget
allocations to ministries that are relevant to issues of the youth. It is
commendable that basic education got a considerable percentage. The percentage
allocation however does not meet the Dakar Framework for Action,
Education for All, which prescribes that twenty percent of the national budget
should be allocated to basic education. The allocation also to the Ministry of
Health is almost half of what the Abuja Declaration prescribed. The declaration
notes that the health sector should be allocated at least fifteen percent of
the national budget.
Figure 7: 2016 National Budget Allocations to
Youth Related Ministries
Source: Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, 2016
What
is further concerning about the 2016 budget allocations is that youth direct
ministries such as Ministry of Youth, Indigenisation and Employment Creation,
Ministry of ICT and Ministry of Small to Medium Enterprises got paltry
allocations yet they are supposed to drive youth employment. The allocations
presented in Figure 7 paint a bleak picture about the government’s commitment
to youth development. The allocations would not significantly increase the
productive capacity of the youth for them to meaningfully contribute to
economic development. With such meagre allocations to youth initiatives, it can
be said that care leavers are likely on the bottom barrel of benefit and can
only receive crumbs if they benefit from the government projects at all.
Beyond allocation as
was noted in Figure 7 above, the research went further to interrogate how the
Ministry of Youth and Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare
distributed the resources they got. Figure 8 and Figure 9 unpack how the
allocated resources were distributed within each government ministry.
Figure 8: MoY 2016 Key Cost
CentresFigure 9: MoPSLSW Key Cost Centres
Source: Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, 2016
|
It is a travesty to note that the Youth Employment Creation Fund
does not have an allocation at all for 2016.
|
For
the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare, the allocation
patterns are almost similar. Eighty nine percent of the budget covers
employment costs with nine percent allocated to programs. The programs in
question include community recovery programs, food deficit mitigation
strategies, government rehabilitation of institutions, harmonised cash
transfers, health assistance, maintenance of elderly persons, national heroes’
dependents assistance, paupers’ burial and support to people living with
disabilities. Ordinarily, the plight of care leavers is supposed to be covered
by the aforementioned budget lines. The unfortunate scenario however is that
the allocations to these budget lines are tokenistic, they would not address
the need that exists in Zimbabwe. As a result, Overseas Development Assistance
and other donor funds fund most of these budget lines.
What
the distribution of the two ministries’ budgets show us is that the government
needs to restructure and make sure that the little resources it has are
unlocked to create opportunities for the people and enhance the productive
capacities of the youth. With the current structure, even if resources were to
increase, the amount of money in real terms that will get to people in need,
more so care leavers, will be insignificant in real terms.
CONCLUSIONS
Using
the integrated, three-dimensional approach to youth employment promotion
conceptual framework, the report analysed the employability situation of young
people leaving alternative care. The report located this study within the socio
political economy of Zimbabwe, which is sine
qua non to the achievement of decent work for care leavers.The research
made several structural observations that militate against care leavers in
their quest for decent employment. Firstly, the report observed that the
Zimbabwean economy has been operating below par because of limited to no
production that is happening in the various sectors of the economy. This has
been caused by policies, which the government has promulgated, some of which
have not been as prudent in luring investors such as the Indigenisation and Economic
Empowerment Act of 2008. Further, Zimbabwe has not been ranking favourably on
the ease of doing business index with corruption being identified as a cancer
that compromises the efficient operations of business in the country. As a
result, there are very few industries that are operational hence there is
little demand of labour. With little demand and high supply of labour force,
the competition for these jobs is fierce and care leavers are usually at the
bottom of the pile.
Secondly, the education system has been criticised by
relevant civil society and capital for not being relevant to the productive
needs of the country. Literature has shown that the Zimbabwean curriculum is
obsolete and archaic to the needs of industry. The Nziramasanga Presidential
Commission of 1999.This irrelevance therefore makes it difficult for the
industries to absorb school leavers even though they may have relevant academic
qualifications raised the irrelevance of the curriculum.
Thirdly, the employment of care leavers is affected by the
absence of a government policy that deliberately promotes the employment of the
youth, especially those coming from contexts of vulnerability. The lack of such
a policy has seen government, as the main employer in the country, being oblivious
to the employment needs of care leavers. This explains why this report
recommends the adoption of a quota system when the government is employing.
Further to this, the state as the primary duty bearer for care leavers has not
been investing much to promote youth entrepreneurship as was deciphered through
the budget analysis conducted. It was concerning to note that in the 2016
budget, the Youth Employment Creation Fund was not allocated any dime. The
Youth Development Fund did not receive significant amounts to be able to enable
the Zimbabwe Youth Council to reach out to more youth with loans for projects.
With meagre resources allocated to this strategic initiative, the competition
to access them is phenomenal with allegations of it taking partisan grounds on
choosing beneficiaries. Further, the allocated amounts to the various
ministries relevant to youth issues spent more than eighty percent of the
allocation on employment costs.
Lastly,
the calibre of care leaver who is released by the residential childcare
facilities around the country has been generally characterised by several
deficits. Fundamentally, the research observed that the more often, the care
leavers lack self-confidence, which is a key ingredient in making one assertive
and initiative. The lack of esteem compromises the care leaver’s agency when
engaging with a competitive world. If agency could have been there, some of the
opportunities alluded to begin accessed on partisan lines, the care leavers
could have rolled their sleeves to claim a piece of the pie.
Linked
to the issue of care leavers’ agency is the quality of care, which the latter
received during their time in the residential care facility. The research
observed that the quality of caregivers within the care institutions is
generally not capacitated to provide the care leaver with mentorship, information,
and grit that prepares the care leaver to get decent employment in a
competitive world. Further, the prescribed ratio of one caregiver to ten
children compromises the quality of care that each child will receive. The
research observed that this ratio in some instances is not adhered to by
residential childcare facilities. This means that the caregiver will not have
ample time for each child, to groom them and instil values that can eventually
be helpful in the process of getting decent employment. Also, having grown up
in the care institution, the care leaver usually does not have sufficient
social capital to provide networks and opportunities for decent work. Networks
play a key role in looking for employment and more often, the care leaver will
not have such.
All
the foregoing observations and more noted in this report prove that getting
decent employment for care leavers is near to impossible. The report therefore
makes recommendations in the proceeding section of how this situation can be
averted.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The
report makes following recommendations to the government as the primary duty
bearer in addressing the employability of care leavers
Establishment of a
quota system for youth employment
The government, as the main employer in
Zimbabwe, should consider coming up with a quota system for the employment of
the youth. Each government department should adhere to this quota system. It is
imperative for the quota system to be at all levels of government. Beyond the
quota system, there is need for a deliberate effort to identify the various
categories of the youth. This is because youth is not a monolithic group
therefore; employment initiatives should deliberately include care leavers as
per the quota system suggested.
Affirmative action for care leavers in TVET
As a build up towards the quota system, TVET
need to have affirmative programs that consider young people from care
institutions with lower entry points than the prescribed cut off so that they
may be on a pedestal obtaining decent employment. The Head of the New Start
Children’s Home agreed to the foregoing when he noted that:
Orphans should be given
preference based on competence or affirmative action, we are in the oprhanhood
generation, how do we expect them to fend themselves unless we do something
about it." An example is that of Germany and Japan after the 2nd World
War, they invested in their orphans and today they are major world powers.
Government has to take deliberate action on this (Dr Farag, New Start
Children’s Home).
Public investment in youth employment
initiatives
There is need for a recognition that
economic development in Zimbabwe is a function of increased productivity
capacity of the country. One of the key drivers for increased productivity in
the country is ability to harness the youth dividend of the country by
facilitating their involvement in the country’s economy. The state should
therefore use the national and local authorities’ budgets to invest in the
Youth Employment Creation Fund and the Youth Development Fund so that youth can
get opportunities for decent work. The public investment should also in the
Ministries that are relevant to the youth such as Ministry of Small to Medium
Enterprises; Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare; Ministry of
Youth, Indigenization and Economic Empowerment and Ministry of ICT.
Creation of
employment opportunities for youth
Zimbabwe
has not been ranking well on the ease of doing business. The government should
review some of the legislations that impede investment. It should embark on
global campaigns to invite labour intensive industries to invest in Zimbabwe.
Further, the government budget should invest in value addition, beneficiation
and industrial diversification. This will create room for decent work for all
youth including care leavers.
Stimulating the agrarian economy
The
Zimbabwean economy is agro based. After the land reform that happened in the country,
which partially has caused the country’s economy to sink into the current
abyss, it is necessary to ensure that, the agrarian economy is driven by the
youth, including care leavers. Currently, the land beneficiaries are averagely
aged 55. This means that the youth are excluded from land ownership. To boost
agrarian productivity, the government needs to make a deliberate effort of
giving land to young people who will include care leavers, in view of the
forthcoming land audit.
Improving entrepreneurship initiatives for youth
The
government needs to support micro, small and medium enterprises. This can be achieved
by promoting youth entrepreneurship. Such interventions should include care
leavers as well. To foster youth on entrepreneurship, the government should introduce
entrepreneurship in the curriculum and modernizing TVET. The government should
further introduce state financed career guidance that is systematic and
provided in a professional manner.
Creating capacity for transitioning from the informal
to the formal economy
Due
to the high levels of unemployment, many youth are in the informal sector. The
informal sector does not contribute to the national fiscus through tax. The
government therefore needs to strengthen the small to medium business to
transition from the informal economy to the formal economy. The government
needs to provide advisoral services, productive resources, infra structure and
formal economic associations for youth to be able to move from informal economy
into the formal economy. This will create more opportunities for decent
employment for care leavers, both as entrepreneurs as well as employees.
Strengthen quality labour market information systems
The
government, together with private sector needs to strengthen national
statistical offices to collect, analyze, store data, and report on youth labour
market information (including information on care leavers) that is disaggregated
by age, gender, race, disability, and worker education, formal-informal and
urban-rural divides. Further, the government needs to provide guidelines for collecting,
processing, archiving and reporting on youth labour market information, and on
its use to inform policies and programmes that promote youth employment. Linked
to this the government needs to undertake research to understand the labour
market situation of youth including care leavers. As the government shall be
expected report on the implementation of the SDGs, Goal Number 8 indicators relating
to decent work and economic development, the government needs to incorporate
the progress made in access to decent employment for care leavers.
Creation
of an after care database from care institution to national level
Each
residential childcare facility needs to have a database of its care leavers,
which will encapsulate information on inter
alia employment, access to social services and support that the care
facility will be giving. The government should include this component on the
checklist that it uses when monitoring the work of residential childcare
facilities.
Curriculum review
The
Ministry of Education, Sport, Art and Culture needs to review the educational
curriculum from its current academic
thrust towards acquisition of practical skills, redefine the curricula so as to
meet the demands of the labour market. This recommendation is applicable to the
Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education.
Preparation for leaving care
The
government should ensure that residential childcare facilities have measures in
place to prepare young people for employment before leaving care. This should
be part of the child’s discharge plan. In the event that the caregivers would
not be having capacity to assist the child in the area of their interest, the
care facility should have a pool of mentors from the communities who will
provide mentorship to the children.
|
Article
15.4 of the African Youth Charter
4. States Parties
shall take all appropriate measures with a view to achieving full
realisation of this right to gainful employment and shall in particular:
a) Ensure
equal access to employment and equal pay for equal work or equal value of
work and offer protection against discrimination regardless of ethnicity,
race, gender, disability, religion, political, social, cultural or economic
background;
b) Develop
macroeconomic policies that focus on job creation particularly for youth
and for young women;
c) Develop
measures to regulate the informal economy to prevent unfair labour
practices where the majority of youth work;
d) Foster
greater linkages between the labour market and the education and training
system to ensure that curricula are aligned to the needs of the labour
market and that youth are being trained in fields where employment
opportunities are available or are growing;
e) Implement
appropriately timed career guidance for youth as part of the schooling and
post-schooling education system;
f) Promote
youth entrepreneurship by including entrepreneurship training in the school
curricula, providing access to credit, business development skills
training, mentorship opportunities and better information on market
opportunities;
g) Institute
incentive schemes for employers to invest in the skills development of
employed and unemployed youth;
h) Institute
national youth service programmes to engender community participation and
skills development for entry into the labour market.
|
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Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social
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Nziramasanga, C. T. (1999). Report of the
presidential commission of inquiry into education and training.
Bennell, P., & Nyakonda, D. (1992). Training
for self-employment: the performance of rural training centres in Zimbabwe. International
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Kanyenze, G. (1997). Youth Unemployment in
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Saungweme, Talknice
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Schumpeter, J. A. (1934). The theory of economic development: An
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[1] Cato Institute. “Electing
for Real Growth in Zimbabwe”. 2013.
[2]https://www.newsday.co.zw/2016/04/18/zim-youths-unemployed-due-decreased-capacity-utilisation/;
Accessed 10 October 2016
[4]http://www.thestandard.co.zw/2016/03/14/mugabe-and-the-15-billion-question/; Accessed 18 October 2016
[5] Ibid
[6] International Monetary Fund.
“IMF Country Report No. 13/193”. 2013.
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2013/cr13193.pdf
[7] See http://thezimbabwemail.com/headline-21799-why-mugabes-indigenisation-policy-is-bad-for-zimbabwes-economy.html; Accessed 18 October 2016; http://www.herald.co.zw/new-indigenisation-framework-unveiled/; Accessed 18 October 2016; https://www.dailynews.co.zw/articles/2016/04/13/mugabe-clarifies-indigenisation; Accessed 18 October 2016.
[9][9] Monyau, Mary Manneko and
Amarakoon Bandara. “Zimbabwe Economic Outlook 2014”. AfDB, OECD, UNDP. 2014
[10] See http://www.insiderzim.com/khupe-says-zanu-pf-has-created-2-2-million-vendors-instead-of-2-2million-jobs/; http://www.weekendpost.co.zw/articles/2015/06/05/will-zanu-pf-ever-deliver-the-2-2-million-jobs; https://www.dailynews.co.zw/articles/2014/08/04/where-are-the-2-2-million-jobs; Accessed 18 October 2016
[11] Monyau, Mary Manneko and
Amarakoon Bandara. “Zimbabwe Economic Outlook 2014”. AfDB, OECD, UNDP. 2014 http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/fileadmin/uploads/aeo/2014/PDF/CN_Long_EN/Zimbabwe.pdf
[12]https://www.newsday.co.zw/2016/04/18/zim-youths-unemployed-due-decreased-capacity-utilisation/; Accessed 10 October 2016
[13]https://www.dailynews.co.zw/articles/2014/08/04/where-are-the-2-2-million-jobs; Accessed 18 October 2016
[14] Mukorera, Sophia and Darma
Mahadea. “Linking Entrepreneurial Activity to Economic Meltdown in Zimbabwe”. Mediterranean
Journal of Social Sciences. Vol 5 No 3. March, 2014. MCSER Publishing:
Rome. Doi:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n3p42
[16]Psacharoploulos, G., &
Patrinos, H. A. (2002). Returns to investment in
education: A further update. World Bank Research working paper, 2881. Washington, DC: World Bank.
[17] For one of the most recent ones, please see the Education for All 2015
National Review Report: Zimbabwe done for UNESCO.
[19]Bennell, P., & Nyakonda, D. (1992). Training for
self-employment: the performance of rural training centres in Zimbabwe. International
Journal of Educational Development, 12(1), 13-25.
[20]UNECA, U., & AfDB, A. U. (2011). Assessing Progress in
Africa toward the Millennium Development Goals.MDG Report.
[21]Wilson, W.J., 1997. When Work
Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor. Vintage Books. And Kain, J., 1968.
Housing segregation, negro employment, and metropolitan decentralization.
Q. J. Econ. 82.
[23]Fukuyama, F. 1995. The Social Virtues
and the Creation of Prosperity, New York: Free Press and Fukuyama, F. 2001.
Social Capital, Civil Society and Development, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 22 (1), pp. 7-20.
[24]Putnam, R.D. 1995. Bowling
Alone: America‘s Declining Social Capital, Journal ofDemocracy, Vol. 6 (1), pp. 65-78.
Putman, R.D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The
Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York: Simon and Schuster.
[26] Moore, KA.
Zaff, JF. Child Trends Research Brief. 2002. Building a Better Teenager: A
Summary of” What Works” in Adolescent Development. American Teens Series. And
Borkowski, J.; Ramey, S.; Bristol-Power, M. Parenting and The Child’s World:
Influences on Academic, Intellectual, and Social-Emotional Development. Mahwah,
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[27] Cherlin AJ.
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[28]Emirbayer, M., & Mische, A. (1998). What is agency? 1.
American journal of sociology, 103(4), 962-1023.
[29]Oyserman, D., Brickman, D. and Rhodes, M. 2007. School success,
possible selves, and parent schoolinvolvement. Family Relations, 56(5): pp.479–489. And Schneider, B. and Stevenson, D. 1999. The ambitious generation. America’s teenagers,
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[30]Schumpeter,
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